Functions and classes in Python

Dr. Huidae Cho
Institute for Environmental and Spatial Analysis...University of North Georgia

1   Functions

1.1   Defining a function

Define a simple function.

def f(x):
    y = 2*x
    return y
print(f(3))

Define it again.

def f(x): y = 2*x; return y
print(f(3))

1.2   Null function

Can you define a function with no body? Let’s try!

def nop():
nop()

Not working! Use the pass statement as a placeholder.

def nop(): pass # just do nothing
nop()

1.3   Functions are objects

A function is an instance of a class (object) with its name.

def foo():
    """ function document
    called doc string """
    return 'foo';
print(dir())    # lists all names in the current scope
print(dir(foo)) # lists all valid attributed for the foo object

Can you see the __class__ attribute? Try this.

def foo():
    """ function document
    called doc string """
    return 'foo';
print(dir())
print(dir(foo))
print(foo.__name__)
print(foo.__doc__)
print(foo.__call__())

1.4   Functions can be nested inside a function

We can limit the scope of a function to its parent function.

def some_math(x, y):
    def add(x, y):
        z = x + y
        print('{x}+{y}={z}'.format(x=x, y=y, z=z))
    def mul(x, y):
        z = x * y
        print(f'{x}*{y}={z}') # shorter way of formatting strings
    add(x, y)
    mul(x, y)
some_math(10, 2)

1.5   Closures

Normally, any local variables defined inside a function do not persist.

def accum(x):
    total += x # well, there is even no way to initialize total
    return total
print(accum(1))
print(accum(2))

Use a nested function to make local variables persistent.

def accum_func():
    total = 0          # initialize it
    def add(x):
        nonlocal total # do you remember nonlocal? total is the total above
        total += x
        return total
    return add         # return the add function itself
accum = accum_func()
print(accum(1))
print(accum(2))

The above programming pattern is called closure.

1.6   Attributes

We can define function attributes.

def accum(x):
    accum.total += x
    return accum.total
accum.total = 0 # create a new attribute
print(accum(1))
print(accum(2))
print(accum.total)

1.7   Decorators

Add pre-/psot-statements wrapping a function.

def decorator(func):
    def wrapper():
        print("before func")
        func()
        print("after func")
    return wrapper
def f():
    print("f")
f = decorator(f)
f()

# the "pie" syntax
# equivalent to g = decorator(g)
@decorator
def g():
    print("g")
g()

1.8   Revisit the persistent variable

We can use the decorator pattern to declare function attributes.

def static_decorator(name, val):
    def wrapper(func):
        setattr(func, name, val)
        return func
    return wrapper

# equivalent to accum = static_decorator('total', 0)(accum)
@static_decorator('total', 0)
def accum(x):
    accum.total += x
    return accum.total
print(accum(1))
print(accum(2))

1.9   Have you noticed this?

Functions can be variables.

def f(g):       # f takes a function and just returns it
    return g
def h(x):       # h takes an argument and prints it
    print(x)
a = f(h)        # a == h
a(12)           # calls h(12)

In C, we call them function pointers.

2   Classes

2.1   How are classes different from functions?

Classes create a new object type that provides both data and functionality while functions only provide the latter.

Classes can be instantiated to create a new object (an instance).

Classes create a new namespace.

2.2   Defining a class

A simple class:

class Accumulator:
    # attribute variable
    total = 0
    # attribute function requires self (Accumulator in this case) as the first argument
    # Accumulator.add() is a function object
    def add(self, x):
        self.total += x # access the total attribute
    def print(self):
        print(self.total)
accum = Accumulator()
# accum.add() is a method object
accum.add(1) # the first self argument is missing
accum.add(2)
accum.print()
# what about this?
Accumulator.add(1)
Accumulator.add(2)
Accumulator.print()

2.3   Class with arguments

Define a class with arguments.

class Accumulator2:
    def __init__(self, start):  # automatically invoked when an instance is created
        self.total = start
    def add(self, x):
        self.total += x
    def print(self):
        print(self.total)
accum = Accumulator2(3)
accum.add(1)
accum.add(2)
accum.print()

2.4   Class variables

All objects instantiated from the same class share class variables.

class Dog:
    kind = 'canine'             # class variable shared by instances
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name        # instance variable unique to each instance

fido = Dog('Fido')
print(fido.kind, fido.name)

Dog.kind = 'feline'
buddy = Dog('Buddy')            # inherits feline
print(buddy.kind, buddy.name)

Dog.kind = 'bovine'
print(buddy.kind, buddy.name)   # kind from the class

buddy.kind = 'canine'           # creates its own kind attribute
Dog.kind = 'bovine'
print(buddy.kind, buddy.name)   # no more from the class

print(Dog.kind)
print(Dog.name) # Oops!         # classes don't have instance variables

2.5   Derived classes

We can derive a class from a base class.

class Mammal:
    hair = True
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name
    def walk(self):
        print('{name} walks'.format(name=self.name))
class Dog(Mammal):
    def bark(self):
        print('{name} barks'.format(name=self.name))

dog = Mammal('A dog')
print(dog.hair)
dog.walk()

buddy = Dog('Buddy')
buddy.walk()
buddy.bark()

2.6   Defining a regular function using a class

Recall the __call__ attribute? We can do the same

class Accumulator:
    def __init__(self):
        self.sum = 0
    def __call__(self, x):
        self.sum += x
    def print(self):
        print(self.sum)
accum = Accumulator()
accum(1)          # just like a regular function
accum(2)
accum.__call__(3) # alternative way
accum.print()

2.7   What about class pointers?

Classes also have their pointers.

class Class:
	def __init__(self, val):
		self.x = val
	def print_x(self):
		print(self.x)
def Return(c):
	return c

a = Return(Class)(10) # indirect instantiation
a.print_x()

b = Class(20)
b.print_x()

3   Homework: Classes

3.1   TupleLister

Write a class that takes a tuple when creating an instance and provides a print method that lists all elements in the tuple one per line. Filename: TupleLister.py

class TupleLister:
    # your code here

tupls = TupleLister(('apple', 'orange', 'pear'))
tupls.print()
# apple
# orange
# pear

3.2   FactSum

Write a class that takes a positive integer and provides two methods for factorial (fact) and summation (sum). Filename: FactSum.py

class FactSum:
    # your code here

factsum = FactSum(5)
print(factsum.fact())
print(factsum.sum())
# 120
# 15

3.3   SportsCar

Write a Car class with the name, has_engine, and max_passengers variables and the start function.

Write a SportsCar class derived from the Car class that provides an additional has_turbo variable and overrides the start function.

Filename: SportsCar.py

class Car:
    # your code here
class SportsCar:
    # your code here

boring_car = Car('My Car')
print(boring_car.name)           # My Car
print(boring_car.has_engine)     # True
print(boring_car.max_passengers) # 5
boring_car.start()               # vroom...

dream_car = SportsCar('Dream Car')
print(dream_car.name)             # Dream Car
print(dream_car.has_engine)      # True
print(dream_car.has_turbo)       # True
print(dream_car.max_passengers)  # 2
dream_car.start()                # Vrooooom!!!